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Ibn Arabi (July 1165–November 1240) was an al-Andalus Arabs Sunni scholar, Sufism Mysticism, poet, and Philosophy who was extremely influential within Islamic thought. Of the 850 works attributed to him, about 700 are considered authentic, and more than 400 still survive today. His Cosmology teachings became the dominant worldview in many parts of the Muslim world.Ibrahim Kalin, Salim Ayduz The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam, Vol. 1 (Oxford University Press, 2014 ), p. 162
His traditional title was Mohyeddin (; The Reviver of Religion). After his death, practitioners of Sufism began referring to him by the honorific title Shaykh al-Akbar (), from which the name Akbarism is derived. Ibn ʿArabī is considered a Sufi saint by some scholars and Muslim communities.Al-Suyuti, Tanbih al-Ghabi fi Tanzih Ibn 'Arabi (p. 17-21)
Ibn 'Arabi is known for being the first person to explicitly delineate the concept of " wahdat al-wujud" ("Unity of Being"), a Monism doctrine that claimed that all things in the universe are manifestations of a singular "reality". Ibn 'Arabi equated this "reality" with the entity he described as "the Absolute Being" (" al-wujud al-mutlaq").
His father, 'Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Ibn Mardanīsh, the ruler of Murcia. When Murcia fell to the Almohad Caliphate in 1172, Ibn Mardanīsh did not survive the defeat and was killed in battle, leading to his father pledging allegiance to the Almohad Caliph Abū Ya'qūb Yūsuf I. At the time, Ibn ʿArabī was only 7 years old, and his family relocated from Murcia to Seville to serve the new ruler.
Ibn ʿArabī had three wives. He married Maryam, a woman from an influential family, when he was still a young adult and lived in Andalusia. Maryam shared his aspiration to follow the Sufi path, as quoted by Austin in Sufis of Andalusia:
"My saintly wife, Maryam bint Muhammad binti Abdun, said, 'I have seen in my sleep someone whom I have never seen in the flesh, but who appears to me in my moments of (spiritual) ecstasy. He asked me whether I was aspiring to the Way, to which I replied that I was, but that I did not know by what means to arrive at it. He then told me that I would come to it through five things: trust, certainty, patience, resolution, and veracity.' Thus, she offered her vision to me (for my consideration), and I told her that was indeed the method of the Folk (Sufis). I myself have never seen one with that degree of mystical experience."During his several-year stay in Anatolia, Ibn ʿArabī—according to Arabic and Persian sources—married Majd al-Dīn's widow and took charge of the education of her young son, Sadruddin al-Qunawi. Ibn ʿArabī also mentioned his third wife in his writings, the mother of his son Imāduddin, to whom he bequeathed the first copy of Futūḥāt al-Makkīyah.
His father, on noticing a change in him, had mentioned this to philosopher and judge, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who asked to meet Ibn Arabi. Ibn Arabi said that from this first meeting, he had learned to perceive a distinction between formal knowledge of rational thought and the unveiling of insights into the nature of things. He then adopted Sufism (Tasawwuf) and dedicated his life to the spiritual path.
Later in 1207, he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including Niẓām.
The next four to five years of Ibn Arabi's life were spent in these lands and he also kept traveling and holding reading sessions of his works in his presence.Islaahe Nafs ka AAiena e Haq
Contemporary scholars like al-Munawi, Ibn 'Imad al-Hanbali and Fairuzabadi all praised Ibn Arabi as "A righteous Wali and faithful scholar of knowledge", "the absolute Ijtihad (independent thinker) without doubt" and "the imam of the people of Sharia both in knowledge and in legacy, the educator of the people of the way in practice and in knowledge, and the shaykh of the shaykhs of the people of truth though spiritual experience ("dhawq") and understanding".
In an extant manuscript of Ibn Ḥazm, as transmitted by Ibn ʿArabī, Ibn ʿArabī gives an introduction to the work where he describes a vision he had:
Goldziher says, "The period between the sixth (hijri) and the seventh century seems also to have been the prime of the Ẓāhirite school in Andalusia."Goldziher, The Ẓāhirīs, 170-171
Ibn Arabi did delve into specific details at times and was known for his view that religiously binding Ijma could only serve as a source of sacred law if it was the consensus of the Sahaba of Muslims who had witnessed revelation directly.Chiragh Ali, The Proposed Political, Legal and Social Reforms. Taken from Modernist Islam 1840-1940: A Sourcebook, pg. 281. Edited by Charles Kurzman. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Ibn Arabi also expounded on Sufi allegories of the Sharia, building upon previous work by Al-Ghazali and al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi. Hamza Dudgeon, "The Revival of Sharia's Allegories," 2019 Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn '
Islamic Andalusia at the time was home to various mystical movements, including those associated with figures such as Ibn Barrajan, Ibn al-Arif and Ibn Qasi, which contributed to the vitality of mysticism. The social and spiritual atmosphere of the Islamic East—particularly in regions such as Iran, Syria, and Iraq—also influenced this milieu. Intellectual traditions such as Avicennism, Suhrawardi and Illuminationism and other philosophical schools shaped the broader context in which Ibn Arabi developed his thought.
During his adolescence and early adulthood, Ibn Arabi was exposed to numerous mystical currents that informed his writings. In one of his works, he refers to nearly seventy teachers who influenced his spiritual development.
Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the concept of a perfect human and one's pursuit in fulfilling this goal. In developing his explanation of the perfect being, Ibn Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror.
In this philosophical metaphor, Ibn Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures. God's essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and human beings the mirrors. This means two things; that since humans are mere reflections of God there can be no distinction or separation between the two and, without God, the creatures would be non-existent. When an individual understands that there is no separation between human and God they begin on the path of ultimate oneness. The one who decides to walk in this oneness pursues the true reality and responds to God's longing to be known. The search within for this reality of oneness causes one to be reunited with God, as well as, improve self-consciousness.
The perfect human, through this developed self-consciousness and self-realization, prompts divine self-manifestation. This causes the perfect human to be of both divine and earthly origin. Ibn Arabi metaphorically calls him an Isthmus. Being an Isthmus between heaven and Earth, the perfect human fulfils God's desire to be known. God's presence can be realized through him by others. Ibn Arabi expressed that through self manifestation one acquires divine knowledge, which he called the primordial spirit of Muhammad and all its perfection. Ibn Arabi details that the perfect human is of the cosmos to the divine and conveys the divine spirit to the cosmos.
Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos. He contemplated the Logos, or "Universal Man", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence.
Ibn Arabi regarded Muhammad as the primary example of the perfect man, embodying the moral attributes of God. He believed that the first entity brought into existence was the reality or essence of Muhammad ( al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya), considered the master of all creatures and a central model for human emulation. According to Ibn Arabi, God's attributes and names are manifested in the world, with their most complete and perfect expression found in Muhammad. He asserted that one could perceive God through the reflection of Muhammad, maintaining that Muhammad served as the clearest proof of God and that by knowing Muhammad, one could come to know God.
Ibn Arabi also described Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all other prophets and various Anbiya' Allah (Muslim messengers) as perfect men, but never tires of attributing lordship, inspirational source, and highest rank to Muhammad. Ibn Arabi compares his own status as a perfect man as being but a single dimension to the comprehensive nature of Muhammad. Ibn 'Arabi makes extraordinary assertions regarding his own spiritual rank, but qualifying this rather audacious correlation by asserting his "inherited" perfection is only a single dimension of the comprehensive perfection of Muhammad.
Ibn Taymiyyah's report was based on the authority of two reliable transmitters, Abu Bakr b. Salar and Ibn Daqiq al-'Id. According to it, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam declared Ibn 'Arabi "a master of evil" and "a disgusting man", who "professed the eternity of the world and did not proscribe fornication."Majmūʿat al-rasāʾil wa al-masāʾil, vol. 4, pp. 73 and 75 This severe verdict, whose authenticity Ibn Taymiyyah considered to be beyond doubt, was pronounced by Ibn 'Abd al-Salam upon his arrival in Egypt in 639/1241- that is, one year after his death. The versions of the story furnished by al-Safadi, a cautious supporter of Ibn 'Arabi, and al-Dhahabi, his bitter critic, and teacher of al-Safadi, are especially helpful in placing Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's censure into a meaningful historical framework. Both al-Safadi and al-Dhahabi insisted that they read the story recorded in Ibn Sayyid al-Nas's own hand. And yet, their versions vary. Both variants describe Ibn Daqiq al-'Id's astonishment at his teacher's sharp critique of the acclaimed wali, which caused him to ask for proof of Ibn 'Arabi's lies. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam obliged by the following reply (in al-Safadi's recension): "He used to deny the of marriage between human beings and the jinn, since, according to him, the jinn are subtle spirits, whereas human beings are solid bodies, hence the two cannot unite. Later on, however, he claimed that he had married a woman from the jinnfolk, who stayed with him for a while, then hit him with a camel's bone and injured him. He used to show us the scar on his face which, by that time, had closed."Al-Wafi, vol. 4, p. 174 In al-Dhahabi's rendition: "He Ibn said: I married a she-jinni, and she blessed me with three children. Then it so happened that I made her angry and she hit me with a bone that caused this scar, whereupon she departed and I have never seen her again since."Al-Dhahabi. Mizan, vol. 3, p. 656 The authenticity of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's disparagement of Ibn 'Arabi seems to find support in his "Epistle on the Saintly Substitutes and the Supreme Succor" (Risala fil-'abdal wal-ghawth).
On the other hand, another narration in praise of Ibn 'Arabi by al-Izz is reported by 'Abd al-Ghaffar al-Qusi , Fairuzabadi, al-Qari al-Baghdadi, al-Suyuti, al-Sha'rani, al-Maqqari, Ibn al-'Imad, and some other supporters. Despite minor variations in their accounts, all of them cite the same source: lbn 'Abd al-Salam's unnamed servant or student. In al-Qusi's redaction, Ibn 'Abd al Salam and his servant were passing by Ibn 'Arabi, who instructed his disciples in the Great Umayyad Mosque of Damuscus. Suddenly, the servant recalled that Ibn 'Abd al-Salam had promised to reveal to him the identity of the supreme saint of the epoch, the "Pole of the Age". The question caught Ibn 'Abd al-Salam off guard. He paused hesitantly for a moment, then pointed in the direction of Ibn 'Arabi, saying: "He is the Pole!" "And this in spite of what you have said against him?" asked the servant. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam ignored this remark and simply repeated his reply. In al-Fayruzabadi's version of the story, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam is presented as a secret admirer of his who was fully aware of the latter's exalted status in the Sufi hierarchy. However, as a public figure, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was careful to conceal his genuine opinion of the controversial Sufi to "preserve the outward aspect of the religious law". In so doing, he, according to al-Fayruzabadi, shrewdly avoided an inevitable confrontation with the "jurists," who viewed Ibn 'Arabi as a heretic.
The importance of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's ambiguous evaluation of Ibn Arabi for the subsequent polemic is further attested by the detailed treatment of this story in al-Fasi's massive biographical dictionary, "The Precious Necklace" (al-'lqd al-thamin). A bitter critic of Ibn 'Arabi's monistic views, al-Fasi rejected the Sufi version of the story as sheer fabrication. Yet, as a scrupulous muhaddith, he tried to justify his position through the methods current in hadith criticism: "I have a strong suspicion that this story was invented by the extremist Sufis who were infatuated with Ibn 'Arabi. Thereupon the story gained wide diffusion until it reached some trustworthy people, who accepted it in good faith .... My suspicion regarding the authenticity of this story has grown stronger because of the unfounded supposition that Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise of Ibn 'Arabi had occurred simultaneously with his censure of him. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's statement that he censured Ibn 'Arabi out of concern for the shari'a inescapably implies that Ibn 'Arabi enjoyed a high rank in the same moment as Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was censuring him. Such a blunder could not have happened to any reliable religious scholar, let alone to someone as knowledgeable and righteous as Ibn 'Abd al-Salam. Anyone who suspects him of this makes a mistake and sins by mutually contradictory statements .... One may try to explain Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise of Ibn 'Arabi, if it indeed took place, by the fact that Ibn was hesitating between praise and censure, because at the time he spoke Ibn 'Arabi's state had changed for the better. If so, there is no contradiction in Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's words. Were we to admit that the praise occurred, it was nevertheless abrogated by Ibn Daqiq al-'Id's report concerning lbn 'Abd al-Salam's later condemnation of lbn 'Arabi. For Ibn Daqiq al-'Id could only hear Ibn 'Abd al-Salam in Egypt, that is, a few years after Ibn 'Arabi's death. This cannot be otherwise because he ... was educated at Qus, where he had studied the Maliki madhhab, until he mastered it completely. Only then he come to Cairo to study the Shafi'i madhhab and other sciences under Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's guidance. ... His departure could only take place after 640, by which time Ibn 'Arabi had already been dead. ... Now, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise, as the story itself testifies, occurred when Ibn 'Arabi was still alive. For did he not point to Ibn, when that individual the asked him about the Pole or the greatest saint of the age?"Al-Fasi. 'lqd, vol. 2, pp. 184-185.
The first English translation was done in partial form by Angela Culme-Seymour from the French translation of Titus Burckhardt as Wisdom of the Prophets (1975),Culme-Seymour, A. (tr.) (1975), "The Wisdom of the Prophets", Gloucestershire, U.K.:Beshara Publications and the first full translation was by Ralph Austin as Bezels of Wisdom (1980).Austin, R.W.J. (tr.) (1980), "Ibn Al'Arabi: The Bezels of Wisdom", Mahwah, NJ: The Paulist Press, There is also a complete French translation by Charles-Andre Gilis, entitled Le livre des chatons des sagesses (1997). The only major commentary to have been translated into English so far is entitled Ismail Hakki Bursevi's translation and commentary on Fusus al-hikam by Mohyeddin Ibn 'Arabi, translated from Ottoman Turkish by Bulent Rauf in 4 volumes (1985–1991).
In Urdu, the most widespread and authentic translation was made by Shams Ul Mufasireen Bahr-ul-uloom Hazrat (Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri -Hasrat), the former Dean and Professor of Theology of the Osmania University, Hyderabad. It is due to this reason that his translation is in the curriculum of Punjab University. Maulvi Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui has made an interpretive translation and explained the terms and grammar while clarifying the Shaikh's opinions. A new edition of the translation was published in 2014 with brief annotations throughout the book for the benefit of contemporary Urdu reader. Fusus Al Hikam , Translated by Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui, Annotated by Mohammed Abdul Ahad Siddiqui, 2014 Kitab Mahal, Darbar Market, Lahore, Online Version at guldustah.com
Final years
After leaving Andalusia for the last time at the age of 33 (1198 AD) and wandering in the Islamic world for 25 years, at the age of 58 (1223 AD) Ibn Arabi chose Damascus as his final home and dedicated his life for teaching and writing. In this city, he composed the Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam in 1229 and finalized two manuscripts of Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya in 1231 and 1238.
Death
Ibn Arabi died on 22 Rabī' al-Thānī, 638 AH (16 November 1240) at the age of 75. He was buried in the Banu Zaki cemetery, the family cemetery of the nobles of Damascus, on Mount Qasioun, Salihiyya, Damascus.
Legacy
After his death, Ibn Arabi's teachings quickly spread throughout the Islamic world. His writings were not limited to Muslim elites; they spread to other segments of society through the widespread influence of the Sufi orders. Arabi's work also spread widely through works in Persian language, Turkish language, and Urdu. Many popular poets were trained in the Sufi orders and were inspired by Arabi's concepts.
Islamic law
Although Ibn Arabi stated on more than one occasion that he did not blindly follow any one of the Madhhab of Islamic Fiqh, he was responsible for copying and preserving books of the Zahirite or literalist school, to which there is fierce debate over his adherence.Mohammed Rustom, Review of Michel Chodkiewicz's An Ocean without ShoreHamza Dudgeon, " The Counter-Current Movements of Andalusia and Ibn ʿArabī: Should Ibn ʿArabī be considered a Ẓāhirī?" 2018, Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society Vol. 64. Many prominent Ibn Arabi scholars, including Claude Addas, Chodkiewicz, Gril, Eric Winkel and Al-Gorab, contend that he did not follow any madhhab. Some scholars, such as Hamza DudgeonDudgeon, "The Counter-Current Movements of Andalusia and Ibn ʿArabī: Should Ibn ʿArabī be considered a Ẓāhirī?," 104.Hamza Dudgeon, " Review of Sufis and Sharīʿa: The Forgotten School of Mercy" in the Journal of Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society 74 (2023): . and Ignaz Goldziher, reject this notion. Goldziher held that Ibn Arabi belonged either to the Zahiri or Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence.Ignaz Goldziher, The Ẓāhirīs: Their Doctrine and Their History, ed. and trans. by Wolfgang Behn (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 169.
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Theoretical mysticism
Ibn Arabi is regarded as a foundational figure in the development of the major schools of mystical thought within Islamic history. He lived in a milieu marked by a strong spiritual atmosphere, shaped by widespread mystical and esoteric experiences.
Knowledge
Ibn Arabi distinguished between three types of knowledge. The first is rational knowledge, derived from theoretical reasoning, which he considered fallible and subject to error. The second is dhawq (translated as "taste" or "delight"), a form of experiential knowledge that cannot be attained through rational reflection or expressed through logical argument. Examples include the knowledge of love, pleasure, or sexual experience. The third type is mystical or divine knowledge, which transcends the limits of reason. Ibn Arabi believed this form of knowledge was granted to prophets and their spiritual heirs. He held that true knowledge—understood as knowledge of a thing in itself—belongs exclusively to God, rendering human definitions of knowledge ultimately inadequate. For Ibn Arabi, knowledge possesses a divine nature. He maintained that the ultimate reality, or the "Real Being," has eternal self-awareness and manifests as both singular and manifold—one essence known by many names.
Imagination
According to William Chittick, little attention has been paid to the importance of imagination in Ibn Arabi. Before Ibn Arabi, imagination counted as one faculty among the senses, but Ibn Arabi tried to develop it conceptually. He interpreted imagination as follows: all beings are images of real Being and non-being. In other words, all things have two dimensions, being and non-being. The universe and all other things counted as imagination which has a middle nature between sheer reality and utter nothingness. All things are considered as qualities and reflections of one thing in many ways. (1994). 9780791422496, State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791422496 It refers to the theory of the unity of existence.
Al-Insān al-kāmil
The doctrine of perfect man ( Al-Insān al-Kāmil) is popularly considered an honorific title attributed to Muhammad having its origins in Islamic mysticism, although the concept's origin is controversial and disputed. Arabi may have first coined this term in referring to Adam as found in his work Fusus al-hikam, explained as an individual who binds himself with the Divine and creation.
Robert J. Dobie (2025). 9780813216775, The Catholic University of America Press. . ISBN 9780813216775
Reaction
The reaction of Ibn 'Abd as-Salam, a Muslim scholar respected by both Ibn Arabi's supporters and detractors, has been of note due to disputes over whether he himself was a supporter or detractor. He was known by the title of Sultan al-'Ulama, the Sultan of scholars, was a famous mujtahid, Ash'ari theologian, jurist and the leading Shafi'i authority of his generation.Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (1997). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. IX (San-Sze) (New ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 812. ISBN 9004104224. As such, the figure of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was claimed by each faction of the Ibn-'Arabi controversy due to his impeccable record as a staunch champion of the Sharia.
Creed
His best-known book, entitled 'al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya' (The Meccan Victories or Illuminations) begins with a statement of doctrine (belief) about which al-Safadi (d. 764/1363) said: "I saw (read) that (al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya) from beginning to end. It consists of the doctrine of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari without any difference (deviation) whatsoever."
Works
.]]Approximately 800 works are attributed to Ibn Arabi, although only some have been authenticated. Recent research suggests that over 100 of his works have survived in manuscripts, though most printed versions remain unedited and contain many errors. William Chittick, a specialist on Ibn 'Arabi, citing Osman Yahya's definitive bibliography, states that of the 850 works attributed to him, around 700 are authentic, and over 400 remain extant.
The Meccan Illuminations (Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya)
According to Claude Addas, Ibn Arabi began writing Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya after he arrived in Mecca in 1202. After almost thirty years, the first draft of Futūḥāt was completed in December 1231 (629 AH), and Ibn Arabi bequeathed it to his son. Two years before his death, Ibn 'Arabī finished a second draft of the Futūḥāt in 1238 (636 AH), of which included several additions and deletions as compared with the previous draft, that contains 560 chapters. The second draft, the more widely circulated version, was bequeathed to his disciple, Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi. Many scholars have attempted to translate this book from Arabic into other languages, but there is no complete translation of Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya to this day.
The Bezels of Wisdom (Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam)
There have been many commentaries on Ibn 'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam: Osman Yahya named more than 100 while Michel Chodkiewicz precises that "this list is far from exhaustive."Michel Chodkiewicz, An Ocean Without Shore: Ibn Arabi, the Book, and the Law, SUNY Press (1993), p. 59 The first one was Kitab al-Fukūk written by Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qunawī who had studied the book with Ibn 'Arabī; the second by Qunawī's student, Mu'ayyad al-Dīn al-Jandi, which was the first line-by-line commentary; the third by Jandī's student, Dawūd al-Qaysarī, which became very influential in the Persian-speaking world. A recent English translation of Ibn 'Arabī's own summary of the Fuṣūṣ, Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (The Imprint or Pattern of the Fusus) as well a commentary on this work by Jami, Naqd al-Nuṣūṣ fī Sharḥ Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (1459), by William Chittick was published in Volume 1 of the Journal of the Mohyeddin Ibn 'Arabi Society (1982).
Critical editions and translations of Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam
The Fuṣūṣ was first critically edited in Arabic by 'Afīfī (1946) that become the standard in scholarly works. Later in 2015, Ibn al-Arabi Foundation in Pakistan published the Urdu translation, including the new critical of Arabic edition.
In fiction
In the Turkish television series , Ibn Arabi was portrayed by Ozman Sirgood. In 2017, Saudi Arabian novelist Mohammed Hasan Alwan won the International Prize for Arabic Fiction for his novel A Small Death, a fictionalized account of Ibn Arabi's life.
See also
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
English translations
Life and work
External links
Categories: 1165 Births, 1240 Deaths, 12th-century Arabic-language Poets, 13th-century Arabic-language Poets, Zahiris, Asharis, People From Murcia, Philosophers From Al-andalus, Medieval Islamic Philosophers, Sufi Poets, Sufi Mystics, Sufi Saints, Sufis From Al-andalus, Arabs From Al-andalus, 13th-century Writers From Al-andalus, 12th-century Writers From Al-andalus, 12th-century Arab People, 13th-century Arab People
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